Syria has a rich history that stretches back thousands of years, making it one of the oldest nations in the world. It was home to ancient civilizations such as the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. From the 16th century, Syria entered a new chapter in its long history when the Ottoman Empire invaded the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt in 1516, successfully conquering Syria and incorporating it into the vast Ottoman realm.
However, in 1831, Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt abandoned his allegiance to the Ottoman Empire and invaded Syria and captured Damascus. This occupation lasted until 1840 because Pasha was forced to surrender by the Europeans. In 1918, after World War I, Syria fell under the influence of European powers, primarily Britain and France. Faisal I led the Hashemite family in the short-lived Independent Kingdom of Syria, which was founded in 1920. This freedom did not last long, though. The newly established monarchy was quickly overthrown by the French, who had been given a mandate over Syria by the League of Nations.
In 1925, Sultan al-Atrash led a major revolution against French rule in Syria, known as the Great Syrian Revolt, which was ultimately crushed by the French. However, the spirit of resistance persisted, and in 1936, after years of negotiations, the French agreed to a treaty that granted Syria a degree of autonomy. Hashim al-Atassi was elected as Syria’s first president, marking a symbolic victory for Syrian nationalism. The French formally terminated their mandate on April 17, 1946, marking the end of colonial control and the beginning of an independent Syria.
Israel’s Declaration of Independence in 1948 triggered the first Arab-Israeli War, which ended in defeat for the Arab nations. For the Arab world, this defeat had significant political and psychological repercussions. This feeling of disappointment turned into a catalyst for political unrest in Syria. A series of military takeovers resulted from this, with many commanders quickly taking control. In March 1949, Colonel Husni al-Zaim took control in a coup, marking the beginning of a turbulent year. His rule was short-lived, as in August 1949, Colonel Sami al-Hinnawi overthrew him. Just a few months later, in December 1949, Colonel Adib Shishakli took control.
These coups reflected the deep-seated discontent with the political system and desire for the new leadership, but they also brought to light the difficulties in establishing stability in a nation plagued by continuous power struggles. In 1958, Syria began a new chapter When Gamal Abdel Nasser, the president of Egypt, and Shukri al-Quwatli, the president of Syria, announced the creation of the United Arab Republic (UAR). However, the UAR was short-lived and contentious, with many Syrians believing that Egypt controlled the union and that Syria’s political identity, and independence were being jeopardized. Syria broke away from the UAR in 1961 after a coup conducted by Syrian military officers. The Ba’ath Party came to power as a result of this unstable time. In 1963, under Amin al-Hafiz’s leadership, the Ba’ath Party staged a coup in 1963 to seize power. But the party quickly started to show signs of internal strife, and in 1966 Saleh al-Jadid, a military officer and well-known Ba’ath Party member, conducted a coup against Amin al-Hafiz.
In 1970, Hafez al-Assad spearheaded the Corrective Movement, a coup that overthrew Saleh al-Jadid. After consolidating his position of authority, Hafez al-Assad was officially elected President of Syria in 1971. An important turning point for Syria was the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, often known as the Six-Day War, in which Israel’s preemptive attack on Egypt, Jordan, and Syria resulted in a majorloss of territory and a resounding defeat for the Arab armies. Syria’s military might and sense of national pride were severely damaged by the loss of the Golan Heights, a strategically significant area that it had ruled since 1944.
In order to retake areas lost in the 1967 war, Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel during the Yom Kippur War in 1973. Egypt targeted the Sinai Peninsula, while Syria targeted the Golan Heights. After the ceasefire, Egypt reclaimed Sinai, which was a symbolic win for Arabs, but Syria, led by President Hafez al-Assad, was not happy because it was left out of the diplomatic process and was unable to retake the Golan Heights. Syria’s dissatisfaction with the outcomes of the 1973 Yom Kippur War and Egypt’s peace deal with Israel drove it to assert its regional influence and maintain its anti-Israel stance. Thus, Syria supported the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and intervened in the Lebanese Civil War. In 1976, under the pretext of peacekeeping, Syria deployed its military in Lebanon, solidifying its authority in the region. However, over time, its presence became increasingly unpopular, culminating in 2005 when widespread Lebanese protests and international pressure following the assassination of former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri forced Syria to withdraw its forces, ending nearly 30 years of dominance in Lebanon.
Following the passing of Hafez al-Assad, who had led Syria for almost thirty years, his son, Bashar al-Assad, became president of Syria in 2000. Since Bashar was seen as a more contemporary and educated leader than his father, his rise to the presidency originally inspired optimism for political and economic reforms. However, Bashar upheld his father’s legacy, limiting political freedom and concentrating authority within his family and military. Protests erupted around the Middle East in 2011 in response to the Arab Spring, demanding more political freedom, an end to corruption, and democratic reforms.
People started protesting the Assad government in Syria as a result of these demonstrations, especially in the southern city of Daraa. As opposition organizations took up arms to resist the regime’s violent repression, the response to these rallies quickly changed from nonviolent protests to armed conflict. Numerous factions and foreign powers became involved in the years-long civil war. Extremist organizations started to appear in Syria as the civil war grew more intense, exploiting the disarray. The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) was one of these. It subsequentlyproclaimed itself a “caliphate” and took over a sizable portion of both Syria and Iraq.
Another extremist organization that became a major force in the fight against the Assad government was Al-Nusra, which ultimately became a component of Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS). The fight grew more fractured throughout the 2012–2014 Syrian civil war. Although the Assad administration was initially at a disadvantage, Russian and Iranian military assistance made it to maintain control of important towns, such as Aleppo and the capital, Damascus. The Syrian Civil War is one of the most devastating conflicts in modern history, resulting in hundreds of thousands of deaths, millions of refugees, and widespread destruction of the country’s infrastructure.
In December 2024, the Syrian conflict escalated dramatically as rebel factions, primarily led by Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), launched a significant offensive. This offensive began on November 27, 2024, when HTS and its allies initiated an assault on Aleppo, capturing the city by November 30, which had been under government control since 2016. By December 5, rebels had successfully captured Hama. On December 8, 2024, opposition forces made a decisive push towards Damascus, the capital, ultimately toppling President Bashar al-Assad’s regime. This marked the end of the Assad family’s 53-year rule over Syria. The situation in Syria is still unfolding. This pivotal moment in Syrian history could pave the way for a new era of rebuilding, unity, and peace for its people. The resilience and determination of Syrians inspire optimism that, with inclusive leadership and international support, the nation can overcome its challenges and move toward stability, prosperity, and a renewed sense of national pride.